Back to Play again...talking about Susan Codone's Report

Technology based play can be elaborative and promote deeper processing by serving as an exploratory and investigative device (Codone, 2010).  Play within interactive multimedia can be open, voluntary, pleasurable, and non-goal oriented.  Play has such significant value and has become connected to many other psychological constructs, such as language formation, symbolism, abstraction of intellectual prototypes, acquisition of tool use, social skill development, perspective or role taking, and the development of creativity (Sutton-Smith, 1979; Christie & Johnsen, 1983). Technology can be created as guided play where educators structure an environment around a general curricular goal that is designed to stimulate children’s natural curiosity, exploration, and play with learning-oriented objects/materials(Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff, 2003). 

Trying to define “Play” is a construct in itself.  There are so many definitions out there as I shared in my Creative piece.   Johann Huizinga (1951) defined play as a free activity standing quite consciously outside ordinary life as being not serious, but at the same time absorbing the player intensely and utterly.  Christie and Johnsen describe play as an activity that is pleasurable, voluntary, spontaneous, devoid of imposed tasks or regulations, intrinsically motivated, undertaken for process rather than expected outcomes and that requires active participation.  Gitlin-Weiner (1988) describes play as pleasurable, the antithesis of work, free of extrinsic goals, and an absorbing process involving the temporary loss of awareness of one’s surrounds.   In all of the many definitions I read, one common theme was enjoyment, fun, creativity,  and a sense of timelessness due to intense immersion.

Constructivist instruction, with its emphasis on student-centered learning, the active construction of knowledge, subjective meaning, and learning situated in authentic, real-world environments, provides an open and acceptable place for play in instruction (Codone, 2010).  Play can consist of problem solving, exploration, and an opportunity to try things out without risk or evaluation.  Play can allow a student to explore what could happen by trying out a variety of actions and observing the consequences.

Play is consistent with the developmental principles of how children learn.  Play is active, has meaningful context, and uses a whole child approach to learning (Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff, 2003).  Play also fosters strong learning through interest, engagement, attention, and intrinsic motivation.

Gagne, Briggs, & Wager (1992) state that instruction is a human undertaking whose purpose to help people learn.  They list five assumptions for the design of instruction.

1.      Instructional design must be aimed at aiding the learning of the individual

2.      Systematically designed instruction can greatly affect individual human development

3.      Instructional design has phases that are both immediate and long-term

4.      Instructional design should be conducted by means of a systems approach

5.      Designed instruction must be based on knowledge of how human beings learn

There is not a lot of research out there, and since there are so many definitions a long-term goal will be to identify the conditions of play to prescribe them for use by instructional designers (Codone, 2010).  These studies will give us a better understanding of play and the ability to train designers on how to “design play” (Codone, 2010).  The W.I.R.E. Indicators of Play aids us in determining what “Play” is.  The W.I.R.E. model is defined as: Way to use play, an Indicator of play, the Result of using play and the Elements that are necessary for play to occur.  This model can be used by instructional designers as a way to “WIRE” their instruction with play, embedding elements into the environment that will stimulate the indicators of play, while at the same time providing designers with specific tactics (ways) to deliver instruction through play (Codone, 2010).

Codone, S. (2010). The Effectiveness of Play as an Instructional Strategy on Procedural Learning, Learner Enjoyment, and Instructional Design.  Raytheon Interactive Technologies. Pensacola, FL. Retrieved from: http://cc.bingj.com/cache.aspx?q=susan+codone+the+effectivenes+of+play&d=4685130859089411&mkt=en-US&setlang=en-US&w=87d35d0,914e414f

Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff. (2003) A Mandate for playful learning: Framing the definitions and the evidence. Retrieved on November 15, 2010 from: http://www.researchconnections.org/files/childcare/pdf/KathyHirsh-PasekPresentation.pdf

Humanistic Approach - Self-Actualization

It was nice to just spend some time reading this weekend.  After studying more instructional designs and strategies I have come to the conclusion that before I am done I will create the BOYD model.  As I see it the most successful design is one that is a blend of several combined.

I have always been a fan of Maslow and his theory called the Hierarchy of Needs.  If you don’t feel like you have a place of meaning in this world – you are not going to become invested to learn anything of the world (Cherry, 2010).

The school has become the provider of many student biological needs.  Some of our students do not have basic meals from anywhere other than our school breakfast and lunch programs.  The school is a haven of safety for many that have violence, brokenness, and a lack of supervision as the norm.  The school is a provider of love, affection, and a sense of belonging for many children.  The classroom should provide an environment that is conducive to building self-esteem -   a real oasis for the heart to grow. 

Children want to learn when relationships are established.  Carl Rogers’ central theme was that facilitating learning to develop learning individuals should be the purpose of education (Cherry, 2010 ).   Achieving this purpose is a direct result of the relationship between the educator/facilitator and the learner.  As a facilitator I feel this is one of my key roles.  My relationship with my students is an essential component of a successful learning environment. 

Valett suggests that humanistic education is a lifelong process designed to develop individuals who will be able to live a joyous, humane and meaningful life (Brockett, 1997).  The mission statement of Warsaw Community Schools is dedicated to providing all students with an excellent education to enable them to be life-long learners and successful citizens (Warsaw, 2010).

To achieve humanistic oriented education you need class sizes that are small enough to encourage person to person relationships.  The subject matter is flexible and allows the academic content to meet learner interests, needs or abilities.  Classroom practices and procedures should help a learner discover his or her own talents, abilities, and skills. 

The central assumptions are that human beings behave out of intentionality and values (Kurtz, 2000).  Humanists believe that it is necessary to study the person as a whole, especially as an individual grows and develops over their life. 

Cooperative learning, discussion-based learning, confluent education and thematic teaching are specific teaching techniques associated with humanism (2010 ).  I measured my obesity unit against many of these requirements and found that our approach has been very humanistic in nature. 

Students were put in small groups where each member of the group could participate in clearly assigned and collected tasks.  We hoped for lots of synergy that would promote cooperative skills, group reflection and goal setting. 

With the team interviews there was a lot of teaching through discussion.  As facilitators we did a lot of guided discussion and reflective discussion.  We wanted to be sure to promote student understanding as they were processing their research.  Through the discussion we asked questions to stimulate critical thinking about obesity and its problems.  The discussions include identification of the problem and establishing procedures and definition of terms and concepts related to the topic.  Students then had to research, question, and support their opinions.   The students have to assume a lot of responsibility for their own learning. 

Humanism provides a way of looking at the instructional design process that emphasizes the strengths the learner brings to the environment (Brocket, 1997).  Humanism is a paradigm that emphasizes the freedom, dignity, and potential of humans (Lamont, 1965).  There are several components of Humanism that I do not agree on with; the main one dealing with belief. 

Humanists do not believe in any supernatural force such as God.  They hold the belief that “human beings are an evolutionary product of nature and, since body and personality are inseparably united one can have no conscious survival after death (Brocket, 1997).  To this point I disagree.  I do believe in a higher power that knew me before I was born.  I was gifted with certain talents and traits and when you are achieving the purpose that you were created for you can become self-actualized.  With this comes a feeling that surpasses all others.  It transcends any earthly happiness, and gives complete contentiveness within an individual.  I am so fortunate to experience this within my life.  I know what I was called to do and feel very complete to be doing it.  I took a break from teaching when I had my children, and I felt a void that was almost unbearable.  Through time and circumstance I was provided another opportunity to teach again, and I do not believe that this was just by chance.  I know that it is part of the design, and I become self-actualized by participating in that design.  I truly believe that this is what has sustained me through my divorce.  When your earthly life is challenged or in shambles, the divine purpose of self-actualization is what can give you life and meaning.

Maslow believed that self-actualization was the highest level of human growth, where one’s potential is fully realized. 

Maslow held that self-actualizers tend to “possess a more efficient view of reality and a corresponding tolerance of ambiguity; to be accepting of themselves and others; demonstrate spontaneous behavior that is in tune with their own values and not necessarily tied to the common beliefs and practices of the culture; focus on problems that lie outside of themselves, thus demonstrating a highly ethical concern; maintain a few extremely close interpersonal relationships rather than seek out a large number of less intense friendships; and possess high levels of creativity” (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991).

An important element of Maslow’s theory is the notion of the mystic experience or the high that one can experience when they are in the flow of self-actualization.  The goal of humanistic education is to help learners become self-actualizing persons.  The curriculum is not the end, but the means of promoting the goals of humanistic education.  Learning needs to be fostered in a cooperative supportive environment.  It celebrates human goodness and the limitless potential of human beings. 

Humanistic education is student-centered with the role of the teacher being that of a facilitator, and helper in the learning process.  The facilitator is the one who is able to set a climate that values and emphasizes the unique experiences and needs of each learner.  It is important to make the learning highly personal by letting the learner invest in its importance and meaning.  Growth is best fostered in a cooperative supportive environment and its main purpose is to help learners become self-actualized.

I think that it is obvious that humanism can compliment other paradigms and contribute to a comprehensive theory of instruction.  It fits perfectly with the Warsaw mission as it emphasizes the development of the person across an entire lifespan. Learning is a lifelong process and this approach does put the Learner as the center of the picture. This approach certainly correlates with what we have been exploring in Principles of Leadership. Coincidence?

Brocket,R. (1997). Humanism as an Instructional Paradigm. Retrieved on November 13, 2010 from: http://www-distance.syr.edu/romira1.html

Cherry, K.  Hierarcy of Needs Self-Actualization and the Hierarchy of Needs. About.com: Psychology Retrieved on November 13, 2010 from: http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/hierarchyneeds_2.htm

College of Saint Francis/St. John. (2010).Program Goal VI:Instructional strategies. Retrieved on November 13, 2010 from: http://www.csbsju.edu/education/knowledge-base/kb-iv.htm

Retrieved on November 15, 2010 from: http://www.k12academics.com/national-directories/school-district/warsaw-community-schools

Formative Assessment or 'Formative Instruction'?

http://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/curriculum/2010/11/formative_assessment_or_format.html

This article is an interesting springboard.  As you know as of late I have been obesssed with assessment and how to do this in a constructivism design. 

The key messages being put forth were these: Don't let the push for new-age assessments mess with formative assessment, and don't forget what formative assessment really is.
And what is it, exactly? According to Margaret Heritage of the National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing, it's a reciprocal feedback loop of students and teachers, figuring out together whether deep learning has taken place. Her very pointed point here was that you can't get there with a pop quiz. (Gewertz, 2010)

It has been an interesting process through the obesity project.  How to measure progress?  The kids are obessed on how they are going to get a grade.

1.  Collection of information about Obesity (definition, what causes it, what happens as a result of it, etc.)
We did a group check to see if they were headed in the right direction - then after several weeks - we asked for a self evaluation on their own individual participation and contribution to the group (Scale of 1-10 - with explanation)  I felt the responses were very honest and candid.  But as soon as we posted their grade in PowerSchool...I felt from the conversation that from here on out they would give themselves a better grade.  So the self-evaluation has now lost its true worth. ( Am I being to pesismistic????)  They are learning how to play the game for the A..

2.  In the explanation we asked what they thought they could do to improve as an individual...and we thought that we would evaluate them next on that aspect.

3.  I had them respond to an article on the moodle and give their opinions and comments.  As I read their comments - I asked them questions about their opinions and now they have some individual questions to answer.  All of this will eventually contribute to the group work down the road. 

I am definitely looking for some input here...on forms of assessment about the journey.  Ideas?  New  territory for me as well...so a lot of design is developing out of each turn of events.  It is sort of progressing as we go along.    I could go on forever, but I will end with this final comment from the article:

Can such a process be designed, formatted and distributed widely? If not, how can—or should—it be employed in the era of numbers-driven accountability?(Gewertz, 2010)


Gewertz, C. (11, November 2010). Formative Assessment or Formative Instruction? Education WEek Curriculum Matters. Retreived from: http://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/curriculum/2010/11/formative_assessment_or_format.html

Creative Assessment

Creativity is an ability that everyone is born with.   In proof, a child left alone will entertain himself with play. As a physical educator I have seen this form of creativity come from a variety of sources. According to Matthew Fox (2002),“ In  play, our imaginations not only get refreshed, they also get set up to connect with new and untried possibilities. Play is the mother of surprise.  Surprise is a sure sign of the Spirit at play”.  All children play, and they play in all kinds of ways.  From infancy we see delight in a peek-a-boo game to more sophisticated games that include made up rules.  I believe that if adults came back to their roots of “play”, that the spirit of creativity would be fostered in one’s own soul and then become emergent through their work.  The word recreation has a form of re-create in it.  Play is an opportunity to recreate oneself.

From the articles that we read, it was easy to correlate play with the potential of unlocking the creativity in each person and how this can contribute to the innovation of an organization.  Solitary play is when a child engages in an activity alone.  He or she becomes totally absorbed in the activity and is not reliant upon the actions or words of anyone else.  It is a form of self-exploration and learning.  A lot of the activity involved here is a result of trial and error, but through this type of play children learn through their actions.  A child learns to scoot, crawl, walk, skip, run, jump, and dance as creative expressions of the movement action through play.  As a child develops, their action, or creativity become more sophisticated and then more deliberate.  The important thing to recognize here is that the deliberate movement was born from the creative thought. Through play, children learn the skills necessary to effectively participate in their world.  Play provides children with natural opportunities to engage in concrete and meaningful activities that enhance physical, language, social and cognitive development (CPIS, 2004).  During play, children increase their knowledge and understand of self and others. 

Play nutures creativity, and play can take on many forms as a person grows older.  A key element to promote the growth and development of creativity is to provide an environment that stimulates the opportunity to create.  Whether it is building a sand castle or creating a new invention or process, it is important to have the time and place to play.  Once “play” becomes a social collaboration the possibility for creativity is multiplied.  “I have always found creativity to be all about juxtaposing concepts and ideas from different fields and places, making unexpected connections” (Play, 2010). Carl Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, believed that creativity comes from play and fantasy.  When a person plays with his or her tools, inspiration, intuition, forms, colors, and the mind, play will take us to realms that are preconscious and pre-judgmental (2004). Fantasy occupies a big role in much if not most of what adults do and is a major element in our intuitive sense of the degree to which adult activities are play (Grey, 2008). An architect designing a house is designing a real house. Yet, the architect brings a good deal of imagination to bear in visualizing the house, imagining how people might use it, and matching it with some aesthetic concepts that she or he  has in mind. The house is really a pretend house in the architects mind before it ever becomes a real one.

William Klemm, in the article Leadership: Creativity and Innovation, states that leaders know in their gut that creativity and innovation are the lifeblood of their organization. I believe that leaders know in their gut that creativity and innovation come from the interaction of others in the organization through private thought or collaboration in play situations.  The play situation might look like private time during the work day, or the joining of forces to solve a puzzle or problem. 

Play provides a state of mind that, in adults as well as children, is uniquely suited for high-level reasoning, insightful problem solving, and all sorts of creative endeavors (Grey, 2008). Play is activity conducted for its own sake.  The playful student enjoys studying the subject and cares less about the test. In play, attention is focused on the means, not the ends, and players do not necessarily look for the easiest routes to achieving the ends.  One reason why play is such an ideal state of mind for creativity and learning is because the mind is focused on means.  It is the journey that is fun, rewarding, and important.  There is no fear of failure because players are not confined; they are free to incorporate new sources of information and to experiment with new ways of doing things (Grey, 2008).  The player’s attention is focused on the process more than the outcome.  The mind at play is active and alert and free from stress.  “Attention is attuned to the activity itself, and there is reduced consciousness of self and time (Grey, 2008).  Jung shares that the creation of something new is not accomplished by the intellect but by the play instinct acting from inner necessity (Grey, 2008).

Strong pressure to perform a certain way inhibits creativity.  It narrows the goal, thereby reducing the ability to focus on means.  In a pressured state, one tends to fall back on the well-learned ways of doing things.

 Lee Vygotsky said in his essay “The Role of Play in Development”, “When we pressure students to do well on their schoolwork by constantly evaluating their work, we put them into a non-playful, goal-directed state that may motivate those who already know how to do it to perform well, but inhibits experimentation and learning in those who don’t already know how” (Grey, 2008).

My Creativity Test score was a 119, which rates me somewhere above average.  In a scientifically cautious statement, (Maslow,1977) similarly noted "the concept of creativeness and the concept of the healthy, self-actualizing, fully human person seem to be coming closer and closer together, and may turn out to be the same thing."  Most people believe that creativeness is a component of self-actualization.  (Yonge 1975), reviewed research showing positive correlations between intelligence and creativity as they relate to self-actualization scores. 

Many believe that certain people posses special talents and personality traits that enhance creativity, but you do not have to possess exceptional artistic, literary, scientific, or entrepreneurial talent to consider yourself a creative person and live a creative life (Davis n.d.).

Creativity is a lifestyle – a way of living and perceiving (Davis, n.d.).  I found several areas in the creativity test to be ambiguous. The questions regarding, I have engaged in a lot of creative activities and most of my friends are unconventional, can’t really be definitive by any type of definition.  What makes a friend unconventional?  How do I know if I have engaged in a lot of creative activities?  By whose definition am I determining my participation of creativeness on a scale of one to five?  These types of tests put a particular mindset to the term creative. These tests “box” us into stereotypical definitions of the term creative. A Mesoamerican poet wrote, “We are creators at our very core.  Only creating can make us happy, for in creating we tap into the deepest powers of self and universe and the Divine self” (Fox, 2002 ).

According to Michael Fox, “It is not the essence of the human to be passive.  We are players.  We are curious. We are yearning to wonder.  We are longing to be amazed. We are eager to grow, to learn, to be excited to be enthusiastic, to be expressive.  In short, to be alive” (Fox

The Sufi mystic Hafiz once wrote, “All the talents of God are within you.  How could this be otherwise, when your soul derived from His genes” (Fox, 2002).  We came from the Creator and we were made in his image.  I believe that everyone has the creative spirit within them.  Creativity knows no age limits.  It can come from a natural expression of self, or stem from careful planning and experimentation.  Creativity can be alone or with others, but it can be increased to grow, because it exists in all of us.

According to Abraham Maslow, “Self Actualization” is the intrinsic growth, of what is already in the organism, or more accurately, of what the organism is” (Maslow, 1977 ).  I have always defined it as becoming the most you can be – living up to your potential.  Reaching self-actualization is a constant journey.  Events and environments can shake different areas of your life, and I believe that we are in constant flux with self-actualization. I think that the more self-actualized you believe that you are, the happier of an individual you will be.  I scored ninety-two on the Maslow test, which rates me highly self-actualized.

Maslow has fifteen characteristics of self-actualized people; the first characteristic being realistic.  Personally, I would not rate myself high in this category.  I consider myself optimistic, which generally overrides any faction of realism in my life. I often find myself in conflict with things the way they are and the way I hope or believe they can be.  This category is conflictive with the fantasy factor in creativity.  I tend to strive for a life that can be and not settle for the realism of what it currently is.  I find myself scoring high in acceptance, humor, spontaneity, and continued freshness of appreciation. I am ethical and moral, and I rate myself high in the areas of creativity, originality, and invention.  My age in life allows me to have a great deal of experiences to hold to on my journey for self-actualization.  I feel very connected to others and I am deeply committed to friends.  I believe that I am living my mission in life, and that I am actually enhancing it further with my doctoral quest.

I do recognize that I have areas of improvement as well.  I have constantly sought praise and I do not feel that I have a great degree of patience.  I feel that I need to work on handling the stresses of life better, but this has fluctuated with the different experiences I have encountered in life.  I am a bit too egotistical for my own good and lately I have not felt real comfortable with being self-sufficient and autonomous.  These are growth areas on my continued journey to realizing my own self and all that I can become. 

My areas of most peace and pleasure are in my “peak experiences” – moments of intense enjoyment.  My faith enables me to look at life in awe and wonderment.  I am truly convicted that something extremely important and valuable happens to us with each experience and that there is a message and meaning for our betterment in all of them.  From this hope I construct my existence.  I do feel that I have something to contribute and by doing so I am becoming more self-actualized.  There is a limitless horizon opening up to me, and I want to take the  path towards it.  Perhaps because I am by myself now, I can concentrate on my own “flow” and creatively pursue any avenue that lies before me.  I can “PLAY” any game that I want to in life now.

As a leader, I want to provide opportunities for others to have “peak experiences”. I want to provide others around me  with an environment where they can be creative.  People need the space and time to just be still from the daily rigors of life to re-CREATE themselves.

British scientist Peter Russell states “What most affects our development is no longer our genes, but our ideas.  With ideas and creativity to put them into action, we can turn space into a home away from home; we can turn places of 120-degree heat into dwelling places through air-conditioning.  We can live under the sea for months at a time.

I can do this on creative avenues of constructive thinking in the classroom to stimulate both critical and creative intellectual processes.  I want my students to think outside the box, inside someone else’s box, look for other boxes, and live in a no limits virtual transparent box.  3M is reported to encourage their research people to spend up to 15% of their time on exploratory projects, thinking out-of-the- box, while still accomplishing the 100% of their work they have contracted to complete within the other 85% of the time (Black, 1990).  Miles Davis is quoted as saying, “I’m always thinking about creating.  My future starts when I wake up every morning.  Every day I find something creative to do with my life.” As a visionary leader, I want to teach others the benefits of virtual box thinking, while I learn the benefits I have never considered that lie within the boxes where I already am. Let’s play!

Black, R. Out-of-Box, In-the-Box, New-Box, Other-box, No-Box Thinking. Retrieved on October 31, 2010 from: http://www.creativityforlife.com/full_article.php?article_id=37

Children’s Play Information Service. (2004). Retrieved on October 28, 2010 from www.ncb.org.uk/library/cpis

Fox, M. (2002). Creativity: where the divine and the human meet. Retrieved on October 28, 2010 from: http://books.google.com/books?id=L7zpIztJLgEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=creativity&source=bll&ots=IdSAyiSH4f&sig=EinvbzBVd5B-BOZOBwqAWXYgnwg&hl=en&ei=0PDOTOSMD4X6lweTo5CtBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=20&ved=0CIoBEOgBMBM#v=onepage&q&f=false

Gray, P. (19, November 2008). The Value of Play. Psychology Today   Retrieved on October 30, 2010 from: http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/freedom-learn/200811/the-value-play-i-the-definition-play-provides-clues-its-purposes?page=2

Klemm, W. R. (2001). Leadership: Creativity and innovation. In R. I. Lester & A. G. Morton (Eds.), Concepts for Air Force leadership (pp. 449-461). Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Air University Press. Retrieved from http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/au-24/cover.htm

Play- What is Play? The Importance of Play, Elements of Children’s Play, Social Elements of Play. Retrieved on October 28, 2010 from http://social.jrank.org.pages/492/Play.html#1xzz13zjDzRz

Retrieved from http://www.raphkoster.com/2010/07/12/games-and-the-creativity-crisis/

Woopidoo Business and Finance http://www.woopidoo.com/business_quotes/authors/carl-jung/index.htm

Instructional Design Article Critique #2

Vail, K. ( 2010, March) American School. Leveling the Field. Volume 197, No.3 pages 14-19

“All research shows when you do something new, it takes five years to show results”. (p.15)  The Adams County School District 50 in Colorado did not have five years to turn things around.  They had persistently low achievement scores, 75 percent of their students were eligible for free and reduced lunches, and almost 40 percent were ELL.  So Adams 50 adopted a standards-based education policy with the idea that children should demonstrate that they have mastered skills before they advance to learn new ones. 

They selected the Re-Inventing Schools Coalition (RISC) model because it replaces grade levels with skill levels.  Designer Richard DeLorezo describes it best with “We give kids the road map; they figure out how they learn best”. (p.17) They wanted to empower kids to take responsibility for their education.  If students were struggling, the teachers helped them.  Students determined and controlled the pace that they learned, and it proved successful.  Achievement soared with 95 percent of students going onto postsecondary education.

The system searched for teachers with a “constructive critical eye” and they attended training by DeLorenzo’s group. Board members, principals, and central office staff also attended.  Stipends were paid out, and in return for this money and training, teachers signed a contract to stay within the district for three years.  It took a superintendent with vision to convince parents and community members.  Together they formed an alliance to bring reform to the classroom. Ten levels were identified that would replace the current grade system.  Robert Marzono agreed to work with teachers to determine what skills would be included in each level and how they would be measured. (p.18) 

Students were placed in their level groups in literacy and math.  The reform started in the 2008-2009 school year and early signs of progress are encouraging, with fifth-grade reading and math scores rising  and discipline problems decreasing by 40 percent, “because kids were at their own level, not bored or frustrated.”(p.18)  Students will graduate from high school when they have mastered Level 10 learning targets in the four core classes of reading, math, science, and social studies.    Some students finish early and then continue to take AP classes for college credit. “Our dream is to have kids walk across the stage with 18 college credits” says Principal Shannon Willy. (p.19)

This article raised numerous questions in my mind.  It is obvious for a reform as dramatic as this, to get everybody on board.  What would happen to traditionalist teachers, principals, school board members and parents who were unwilling to change?  Would teachers quit?  School board members change every two to four years and our current administrators and educators being trained in this methodology?

It seems to make sense that this would help slow lowest-performing students by giving them more time and not holding back high-performing students who could move at their own pace.  In my school corporation we have students in middle school who cannot read, or do so at a third grade level.  Indiana schools have passed that promotion will not continue past the third grade if a student does not meet the competency level in reading. This is a small step towards competency based learning, but perhaps it is the beginning of reform as a State.

This model would also take a lot of new learning and training to be successful.  Reading about it is one thing, but witnessing its proof is another.  It would take a substantial amount of money for visitations, to train, promote, and implement this new methodology.  Colorado is depending on Race to the Top monies, but Indiana is already out of the running.  Where would this money come from?  Professional development money has been suspended in Indiana.  Perhaps corporation sponsorship could be one source or a tuition requirement placed on participating students.

Graduation is based on the RISC model, but how would different colleges look at a nontraditional transcript?  Most colleges require SAT scores and credit hours in a college prep curriculum. I feel that this reform would need to be nation-wide or at least state wide to be understood and accepted by state schools.  Everyone would need to be on the same page of understanding.  

This is a radical change on a model that has been in place for centuries, so I can see why pilot schools are necessary to test the water. Competence is not trained behavior but thoughtful capabilities and a developmental process (Barrie and Pace 1997; Chappell 1996).  Studies of the development of expertise as well as the constructivist view of learning suggest that people make judgments and review, reflect on, and change behavior, continually reconstructing relevant and useful knowledge as they interact with a situation (Hodkinson and Issitt 1995; Hyland 1994). This brings assessment to mind.  How would each level of competency be assessed?  Would it be a checklist approach, a pass/fail/ or performance of a skill?  Would students only seek to achieve a minimum level of competency or would they strive for the highest standard?  Would it be a one- time assessment or one of an on-going application? The nature of these competency standards will obviously determine how they should best be assessed. Since they are based on the idea that competence is a construct that is not directly observable but rather is inferred from successful performance, it is clear that performance will be vital for assessment (Education Commission of the States. (1995, January).

I believe that this would foster more authentic forms of assessment.  I know that Physical Education is rather subjective in assessment.  Heart rate monitors would provide data to prove a performance level of competency.  In Language Arts the written word could be a form of assessment as well as solving math problems.  In Indiana it is projected that in three years graduated students could be assessed in the fulfillment of their job performance and their college progression. Competence-based assessment needs t o be relevant for students. Competence, being largely work-based, introduces us to the idea that assessment can be made to be relevant, and to be based on 'real' and lived experience, whether in the workplace, or through hobbies, leisure activities or in wellness practices.  I could see where competency-based education could be more conducive to 21^st Century learning and prepare students for their life’s work.

There are no set rules for how learning takes place.  In theory the RISC model means that students can take as much time as they need to learn and develop. An open-ended commitment to an individual education would prove to be most difficult with the implementation of individual learning plans and assessment.  There would have to be some form of a time constraint.  I think that going from a time-based system to a competency-based system will be most difficult.  It would certainly require year-round school and a complete revamp of our thinking.  It will be interesting to watch trends, check achievement, and to see if this reform will take hold all over the country.

Armstrong, P. Raising standards: a creative look at competence and assessment and implications for mainstreaming in university adult education. Retrieved from: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00002988.htm 10/17/2010

Education Commission of the States. (1995, January). "Outcome-based" education: An overview. Denver, CO: Author. Retrieved from: http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/envrnmnt/go/go4outcm.htm

Vail, K. ( 2010, March) American School. Leveling the Field. Volume 197, No.3 pages 14-19

 

Instructional Design Model Comparisons

Instructional design is considered to be both a science and an art.  “A science because it is rooted in learning theories…and an art because the designing of instructional materials is a highly creative process” (Moore, Bates, & Grundling, 2001).  The goal of instructional design is to create successful learning experiences that create the transfer of knowledge.  It is a representation of a view on how people learn.  Models help conceptualize a process or system.  They simplify the complexities of real situations into sets of generic steps that can be applied in many contexts (Gustafson & Branch, 2002).

Knowing that learning theories are an integral part of the instructional design process, the designer must understand how the three fundamental frameworks of theories become guidelines to creating good design models. 

Behaviorism is linking learning to observable behaviors (McGriff, 2001). Instruction has the target stimulus and the provision of opportunities for the learner to practice making the proper response (Ertmer & Newby, 1993).  Behaviorism theory is basically passive and just requires a learner to respond to stimuli (Boetcke, 1998).  That stimuli being examples like training and the traditional classroom.

Cognitive learning theories place more emphasis on factors within the learner.  It is more about the mental activity, memory, internal coding and structuring by the learner (Ertmer & Newby, 1993).  Examples are field trips, Discovery Learning, and science labs.  The learners process, store, and retrieve information in the mind for further use (Boetcher, 1998).

Constructivists believe that knowledge is a combination of prior knowledge from prior experiences and they intertwine and build on each other.  Learners have personal interpretations of the world based on individual experience and interactions (Ertmer & Newby, 1993).  A successful constructivist learning environment could consist of the internet and hypermedia.  Tasks would be situated in real world contexts like group work, debates, and evidence-giving discussions.  Learners create their own unique education. 

Teachers must use some type of instructional design models in order the plan the instruction.  Without it there is no road map, or real meaning.  It becomes a “fly by the seat of your pants” approach and students are kept busy with a variety of hands-on-activities or they are overwhelmed with information as the teachers ask them to answer the questions at the end of the chapter.   By utilizing an instructional design model the teacher forces him or herself to establish what learning goals are going to be met, and by using different instructional design models in a way that takes the theories and research into account, he or she can implement a valid working lesson.

Gustafson and Branch (2001) have developed taxonomy of models based on specific characteristics.  Classroom-oriented models concentrate on an instructor, students, a classroom, and a piece of instruction that needs to be improved (Prestera, 2002).  Product-oriented models focus on making production more efficient, and Systems-oriented models aim to provide “a complete instructional system for managing learning needs” (Prestera, 2002).

The basic design model is: Analysis, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate or the ADDIE.  This model is a systematic approach that is highly adaptable to a variety of learning needs.  Analysis is when you identify the problem, understand what it is and determine the scope of the project before the attempt to solve it.  The time involved in this could require a few hours or a long time depending on the complexity of the problem.  The Design phase is where the teacher constructs the objectives and then the performance steps. It should be systematic and specific (Culatta, 2010).  The design phase not only addresses the learning objectives, but also the assessment instruments, exercises, content, subject matter analysis, lesson planning and media selection.   The Development portion is where the fine tuning of the instruction begins.  The Implement phase is where the instruction is finally put into play.  All aspects are made clear to the learner in this phase so that they understand purpose, method of delivery, testing procedures, and any new learning application that is going to be used. The Evaluation phase of the model is actually not last or least.  The evaluation is actually performed throughout the process. A teacher would not want to spend all the time in building a solution and then wait until the end to see if it was successful.  The evaluation can consist of two parts, formative and summative.  Formative evaluation is present in each stage of the ADDIE process and the summative could consist of tests and providing opportunities for feedback from the users.  In the ADDIE model, each step has an outcome that feeds into the next subsequent step.

ADDIE has been criticized for being too linear or step specific.  Its basic structure does not take a close look at the learner as an individual. It is designed to meet criteria. Most instructional design models are spin-offs or variations of the ADDIE model.  I chose these three to compare because as a classroom teacher I can use all three of these models and give a variation to the content each time that I design.  One model concentrates on the problem, the learner, and the content.  All of these can be successful models dependent on the situation.

The Kemp Design model concentrates on the learner and any of their characteristics that could limit instruction.   It is a holistic approach to instructional design that considers all factors in the environment.  This model prescribes a process that is repetitive and subject to constant revision.  It is very flexible, focuses on content, and appeals to teachers (Prestera, 202).

One element that makes it different from some other models is that the instruction is considered from the perspective of the learner.  “The designer begins by asking six questions related to the required level of learner readiness, instructional strategies and media that are to be most appropriate for the content and the target population, level of learner support required, measurement of achievement, and strategies for formative and summative evaluation “(Morrison, Ross, & Kemp, 2001).

 This analysis might change the original intention, but can create some great challenges for creative design (Morrison, Ross, & Kemp, 2001). “The Kemp Model consists of nine elements:

1.       Identify instructional problems, and specific goals for designing an instructional program

2.      Examine learner characteristics that should receive attention during planning.

3.      Identify subject content, and analyze task components related to stated goals and purposes.

4.      State instructional objectives for the learner

5.      Sequence content within each instructional unit for logical learning

6.      Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the objectives.

7.      Plan the instructional message and delivery.

8.      Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives.

9.      Select resources to support instruction and learning activities.” (Fauser, Henry, & Norman, 2006).

This model does recognize that not all nine elements are required for all projects.  Due to its lack of connectivity between elements and the ability to start at any place within the model, a designer can examine the entire scope of a project or the smallest detail of it just as effectively (Remley, 2002).  It is a classroom-oriented model where the designed can select from existing instructional materials.   It also allows for instructional strategies and media to be selected before the content is analyzed, since one can start at any phase. The required level of instructional design skill is low, the level of front end analysis is minimal and the level of formative evaluation is moderate.  This model supports motivation and feedback approaches which any teacher would appreciate.

The Gerlach & Ely Model is a prescriptive model that is best suited to K-12.  This model allows for a beginning instructional designer to be successful without a lot of front-end analysis.  It emphasizes existing content as the basis for new instruction.   You are not set into a rigid patter of procedure.  A teacher can modify the order of the steps at anytime depending n the settings of the instructional situation.   It starts with a specific content and specific objectives are looked at.  Does the objective look at something which the learner does or produces? Does it state a behavior or a product of the learner’s behavior and it observable or measurable?  Does it state the conditions under which the behavior is to occur as in the example of time or materials? Can it be related to a required standard in the curriculum?

A teacher would want to assess the student’s present skill or if they need instruction.  This could be done with a pre-test. With this information the teacher can then decide how to use this information, select the resources needed and define the role of the student.    From here the teacher will decide what type of instructional approach should be used. It could be inquire-based or expository, but either way it is essential to determine which strategies will best allow the students to meet their objectives.

The organization of groups determines whether a student learns best with others or individually, or through an interaction with the teacher. Gerlach and Ely also emphasize “the need to accommodate individual learning rates via "individual student prescriptions" based upon 1) well-ordered behavioral objectives and 2) appropriate materials to get there” (Gerlach, Vernon, & Ely, 1980).

The usage of space, time, and resources are important aspects to the success of instruction.  Can the objectives be met with what you have or need (resources) in the time allotted and the space provided? Gerlach and Ely differentiate between Learning Resources and Instructional Materials. Materials do not become resources until there is a meaningful context for their use (Gerlach, Vernon, & Ely, 1980).

The evaluation of performance includes that the students did learn something and was that observable and measurable.  Did changes occur in the students and did this happen because of the instruction?

Feedback is this model is essential to the design process.  A teacher can use the information gained from the performance evaluation to determine the quality of the student behavior and the effectiveness of the instructional techniques.

Most instructional designed models, when diagrammed, appear to be linear and rigid, but in application, they are “iterative, moving backwards and forwards between the activities” (Moore, Bates & Grundling, 2002).  Most models are flexible; leaving the designer to decide how much details is required at each step. 

An instructional designer cannot be effective if they are familiar with only one model.  Designers must be able to fit the design to the situation and if you know a variety of models that will enable a designer to be more successful.  Although models have differences, they share a fundamental principle of attempting to deliver effective learning or educational tools.  One is to be reminded that “most research suggests that it is the analysis process, and not the delivery mode, that determines the success of the instruction” (The Herridge Group, Inc. 2010).

ADDIE Model, (n.d.) Retrieved Oct. 4, 2010, from Learning Theories: http://www.learning –theories, com/addie-model.html

CornerStone Newsletter (n.d.) Retrieved on Oct. 7, 2010 from: http://web.pace.edu/CTLT/newsletter/Volume%202%20Issue%201/articles/idm.htm

Frauser, M. Henry, K. & Norman, D. (4, Feb. 2006). David Kent Norman Online Notebook. Comparison of Alternative Instructional Design Models. Retrieved on October 4, 2010 from : http://deekayen.net/comparison-alternative-instructional-design-models

Gerlach, Vernon S. & Donald P. Ely. Teaching & Media: A Systematic Approach. Second edition. (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1980) Retrieved from  http://www.umich.edu/~ed626/Gerlach_Ely/ge_co.htm

Instructional Design, (n.d.) Kemp Design Model. Retrieved on October 11, 2010 from http://www.instructionaldesign.org/models/kemp_model.html

The Herridge Group, Inc.  (n.d.) Retrieved October 4, 2010 from The Use of Traditional Instructional Systems Design Models for eLearning from

http://www.herridgegroup.com/pdfs/The%20use%20of%20Traditional%20ISD%20for%20eLearning.pdf